Conteúdo baseado em estudos científicos e dados verificáveis.Atualizado: setembro 2026
ΩA Ciência do EquilíbrioÓmega-3 explicado com dados
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Biblioteca científica

180 estudos, coortes, ensaios, meta-análises e revisões.

Uma base científica navegável para verificar diretamente as evidências usadas nas páginas do Ciência Omega-3. Os links abrem PubMed ou DOI em nova aba.

180 referências ligadas174 PubMed9 áreas
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Fundamentos de EPA, DHA e membranas (7)Omega-3 Index, rácio e biomarcadores (7)Forma química, absorção, biodisponibilidade e oxidação (17)Inflamação crónica de baixo grau (12)Coração e circulação (22)Cérebro, cognição, crianças e estudantes (42)Metabolismo, resistência à insulina e fígado (12)Atletas, músculo, recuperação e articulações (21)Pele, gravidez e primeiros anos (15)

Fundamentos de EPA, DHA e membranas

Aplicação prática: EPA e DHA.

Bases de composição lipídica, metabolismo e mecanismos dos ómega-3.

  1. Ratnayake WMN, Galli C. Fat and fatty acid terminology, methods of analysis and fat digestion and metabolism: a background review paper. Ann Nutr Metab. 2009;55(1-3):8-43. doi:10.1159/000228994. PMID:19752534
  2. Stillwell W, Wassall SR. Docosahexaenoic acid: membrane properties of a unique fatty acid. Chem Phys Lipids. 2003;126(1):1-27. doi:10.1016/S0009-3084(03)00101-4. PMID:14609912
  3. Burdge GC, Calder PC. Conversion of alpha-linolenic acid to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human adults. Reprod Nutr Dev. 2005;45(5):581-597. doi:10.1051/rnd:2005047. PMID:16188209
  4. Calder PC. Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes. Nutrients. 2010;2(3):355-374. doi:10.3390/ nu2030355. PMID:22254027
  5. Calder PC. Marine omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: effects, mechanisms and clinical relevance. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2015;1851(4):469-484. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.08.010. PMID:25149823
  6. Serhan CN. Pro-resolving lipid mediators are leads for resolution physiology. Nature. 2014;510(7503):92-101. doi:10.1038/nature13479. PMID:24899309
  7. Weylandt KH, Serini S, Chen YQ, et al. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: the way forward in times of mixed evidence. BioMed Res Int. 2015;2015:143109. doi:10.1155/2015/143109.

Omega-3 Index, rácio e biomarcadores

Aplicação prática: Omega-3 Index e rácio ómega-6:3.

Estudos de biomarcadores, coortes e relação com desfechos.

  1. Harris WS, von Schacky C. The Omega-3 Index: a new risk factor for death from coronary heart disease? Prev Med. 2004;39(1):212-220. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.02.030. PMID:15208005
  2. Ostermann AI, West AL, Schoenfeld K, et al. Plasma oxylipins respond in a linear dose-response manner with increased intake of EPA and DHA: results from a randomized controlled trial in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;109(5):1251-1263. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqz016. PMID:31006007
  3. Blasbalg TL, Hibbeln JR, Ramsden CE, Majchrzak SF, Rawlings RR. Changes in consumption of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the United States during the 20th century. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93(5):950-962. doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.006643. PMID:21367944
  4. Stark KD, Van Elswyk ME, Higgins MR, Weatherford CA, Salem N Jr. Global survey of the omega-3 fatty acids, DHA and EPA in the blood stream of healthy adults. Prog Lipid Res. 2016;63:132-152. doi:10.1016/ j.plipres.2016.05.001. PMID:27216485
  5. Simopoulos AP. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed Pharmacother. 2002;56(8):365-379. doi:10.1016/S0753-3322(02)00253-6. PMID:12442909
  6. Zhang Y, Sun Y, Yu Q, et al. Higher ratio of plasma omega-6/omega-3 fatty acids is associated with greater risk of all-cause, cancer, and cardiovascular mortality: a population-based cohort study in UK Biobank. eLife. 2024;12:RP90132. doi:10.7554/eLife.90132. PMID:38578269
  7. Harris WS, Tintle NL, Etherton MR, Vasan RS. Erythrocyte long-chain omega-3 fatty acid levels are inversely associated with mortality and with incident cardiovascular disease: The Framingham Heart Study. J Clin Lipidol. 2018;12(3):718-727.e6. doi:10.1016/j.jacl.2018.02.010. PMID:29559306

Forma química, absorção, biodisponibilidade e oxidação

Aplicação prática: como escolher e como comprar um ómega-3 melhor.

TG/rTG, EE, emulsificação, incorporação e qualidade oxidativa.

  1. Dyerberg J, Madsen P, Møller JM, Aardestrup I, Schmidt EB. Bioavailability of marine n-3 fatty acid formulations. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2010;83(3):137-141. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2010.06.007. PMID:20638827
  2. Neubronner J, Schuchardt JP, Kressel G, Merkel M, von Schacky C, Hahn A. Enhanced increase of omega-3 index in response to long-term n-3 fatty acid supplementation from re-esterified triglycerides versus ethyl esters. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011;65(2):247-254. PMID:21063431
  3. Minton ST, et al. Comparative membrane incorporation of omega-3 fish oil formulations with different re- esterified triglyceride content. Nutrients. 2023;15. PMID:36706088
  4. Schuchardt JP, Schneider I, Meyer H, Neubronner J, von Schacky C, Hahn A. Incorporation of EPA and DHA into plasma phospholipids in response to different omega-3 formulations. Lipids Health Dis. 2011;10:145. doi:10.1186/1476-511X-10-145. PMID:21854650
  5. Lawson LD, Hughes BG. Human absorption of fish oil fatty acids as triacylglycerols, free acids, or ethyl esters. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1988;152(1):328-335. PMID:2847723
  6. Garaiova I, Guschina IA, Plummer SF, Tang J, Wang D, Plummer NT. A randomised cross-over trial in healthy adults indicating improved absorption of omega-3 fatty acids by pre-emulsification. Nutr J. 2007;6:4. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-6-4.
  7. Raatz SK, Johnson LK, Rosenberger TA, Picklo MJ. Enhanced bioavailability of EPA from emulsified fish oil preparations versus capsules. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2016;113:15-21. PMID:26688435
  8. Bremmell KE, et al. A self-emulsifying omega-3 ethyl ester formulation improves EPA and DHA bioavailability. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2020;74:423-430. PMID:31637467
  9. Albert BB, Derraik JGB, Cameron-Smith D, et al. Fish oil supplements in New Zealand are highly oxidised and do not meet label content of n-3 PUFA. Sci Rep. 2015;5:7928. doi:10.1038/srep07928.
  10. Jackowski SA, Alvi AZ, Mirajkar A, et al. Oxidation levels of North American over-the-counter n-3 supplements and the influence of supplement formulation and delivery form. J Nutr Sci. 2015;4:e30. doi:10.1017/jns.2015.21. PMID:26688721
  11. Ottestad I, Vogt G, Retterstøl K, et al. Oxidised fish oil does not influence established markers of oxidative stress in healthy human subjects: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr. 2012;108(2):315-326. PMID:22136711
  12. Albert BB, Cameron-Smith D, Hofman PL, Cutfield WS. Oxidation of marine omega-3 supplements and human health. Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:464921. doi:10.1155/2013/464921. PMID:23738326
  13. Suzukawa M, Abbey M, Howe PR, Nestel PJ. Effects of fish oil fatty acids on low density lipoprotein size, oxidizability, and uptake by macrophages. J Lipid Res. 1995;36(3):473-484. PMID:7775859
  14. Pedersen H, Petersen M, Major-Pedersen A, et al. Influence of fish oil supplementation on in vivo and in vitro oxidation susceptibility of LDL. Free Radic Res. 2003;37(6):647-655. PMID:12771973
  15. Brude IR, Drevon CA, Hjermann I, et al. Peroxidation of LDL from combined-hyperlipidemic male smokers supplied with omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17(11):2576-2588. PMID:9409230
  16. Flock MR, Skulas-Ray AC, Harris WS, et al. Determinants of erythrocyte omega-3 fatty acid content in response to fish oil supplementation. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;97(4):808-817. PMID:23426033
  17. Walker RE, Jackson KH, Tintle NL, Shearer GC, Bernasconi A, Masson S, Latini R, Heydari B, Kwong RY, Flock M, Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS. Predicting the effects of supplemental EPA and DHA on the Omega-3 Index. Am J Clin Nutr. 2019;110(4):1034-1040. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqz161. PMID:31396625

Inflamação crónica de baixo grau

Aplicação prática: inflamação crónica de baixo grau.

Mecanismos inflamatórios, resolução, citocinas, envelhecimento e mortalidade.

  1. Furman D, Campisi J, Verdin E, et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nat Med. 2019;25(12):1822-1832. doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0675-0.
  2. Kiecolt-Glaser JK, Belury MA, Andridge R, Malarkey WB, Hwang BS, Glaser R. Omega-3 supplementati‐ on lowers inflammation in healthy middle-aged and older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Brain Behav Immun. 2012;26(6):988-995. doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2012.05.011. PMID:22640930
  3. Tan A, Sullenbarger B, Prakash R, McDaniel JC. Supplementation with eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid reduces high levels of circulating proinflammatory cytokines in aging adults: a randomized, controlled study. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2018;132:23-29. PMID:29735019
  4. Lai HTM, de Oliveira Otto MC, Lemaitre RN, et al. Serial circulating omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and healthy ageing among older adults in the Cardiovascular Health Study: prospective cohort study. BMJ. 2018;363:k4067. doi:10.1136/bmj.k4067. PMID:30333104
  5. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gängler S, Wieczorek M, et al. Individual and additive effects of vitamin D, omega-3 and exercise on DNA methylation clocks of biological aging in older adults from the DO-HEALTH trial. Nat Aging. 2025;5(3):376-385. doi:10.1038/s43587-024-00793-y. PMID:39900648
  6. Harris WS, Tintle NL, Imamura F, et al. Blood n-3 fatty acid levels and total and cause-specific mortality from 17 prospective studies. Nat Commun. 2021;12:2329. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22370-2. PMID:33888689
  7. McBurney MI, Tintle NL, Vasan RS, Sala-Vila A, Harris WS. Using an erythrocyte fatty acid fingerprint to predict risk of all-cause mortality: the Framingham Offspring Cohort. Am J Clin Nutr. 2021;114(4):1447-1454. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqab195. PMID:34134132
  8. Simopoulos AP. The importance of the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio in cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases.
  9. Serhan CN, Chiang N, Van Dyke TE. Resolving inflammation: dual anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution lipid mediators.
  10. Lawrence T. The nuclear factor NF-κB pathway in inflammation.
  11. Furman D, et al. Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span.
  12. Ridker PM. Clinical application of C-reactive protein for cardiovascular disease detection and prevention.

Coração e circulação

Aplicação prática: ómega-3 e coração.

Ensaios, coortes, meta-análises e desfechos cardiovasculares.

  1. Flock MR, Skulas-Ray AC, Harris WS, et al. Determinants of erythrocyte omega-3 fatty acid content in response to fish oil supplementation: a dose-response randomized controlled trial. J Am Heart Assoc. 2013;2(6):e000513. doi:10.1161/JAHA.113.000513. PMID:24252845
  2. Simmonds LA, Sullivan TR, Skubisz M, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in pregnancy-baseline omega-3 status and early preterm birth: exploratory analysis of a randomised controlled trial. BJOG. 2020;127(8):975-981. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.16168. PMID:32034969
  3. Jiang H, Wang L, Wang D, et al. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid biomarkers and risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, and mortality. Clin Nutr. 2022;41(8):1798-1808. PMID:35830775
  4. Harris WS, Del Gobbo L, Tintle NL. The Omega-3 Index and relative risk for coronary heart disease mortality: Estimation from 10 cohort studies. Atherosclerosis. 2017;262:51-54. PMID:28511049
  5. Harris WS, Luo J, Pottala JV, et al. Red blood cell polyunsaturated fatty acids and mortality in the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study. J Clin Lipidol. 2017;11(1):250-259.e5. PMID:28391893
  6. Bernasconi AA, Wiest MM, Lavie CJ, Milani RV, Laukkanen JA. Effect of Omega-3 Dosage on Cardiovascular Outcomes: An Updated Meta-Analysis and Meta-Regression of Interventional Trials. Mayo Clin Proc. 2021;96(2):304-313. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2020.08.034. PMID:32951855
  7. Dinu M, Colombini B, Pagliai G, et al. Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on coronary revascularization and cardiovascular events: a meta-analysis. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2024;31(15):1863-1875. doi:10.1093/eurjpc/ zwae179. PMID:38869144
  8. GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet. 1999;354(9177):447-455. PMID:10465168
  9. Yokoyama M, Origasa H, Matsuzaki M, et al.; JELIS Investigators. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients: a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis. Lancet. 2007;369(9567):1090-1098. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60527-3. PMID:17398308
  10. Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Miller M, et al.; REDUCE-IT Investigators. Cardiovascular Risk Reduction with Icosapent Ethyl for Hypertriglyceridemia. N Engl J Med. 2019;380(1):11-22. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1812792. PMID:30415628
  11. Budoff MJ, Bhatt DL, Kinninger A, et al. Effect of icosapent ethyl on progression of coronary atherosclerosis in patients with elevated triglycerides on statin therapy: final results of the EVAPORATE trial. Eur Heart J. 2020;41(40):3925-3932. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa652. PMID:32860032
  12. Arabi SM, Bahrami LS, Rahimi R, et al. Omega-3 fatty acids and endothelial function: A GRADE-assessed systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Invest. 2024;54(2):e14109. doi:10.1111/eci.14109. PMID:37859571
  13. Oh PC, Koh KK, Sakuma I, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid therapy dose-dependently decreased triglycerides and improved flow-mediated dilation in patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Int J Cardiol. 2014;176(3):696-702. PMID:25147070
  14. Zhang X, Ritonja JA, Zhou N, Chen BE, Li X. Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Intake and Blood Pressure: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Am Heart Assoc. 2022;11(11):e025071. doi:10.1161/JAHA.121.025071. PMID:35647665
  15. Wang T, Zhang X, Zhou N, et al. Association Between Omega-3 Fatty Acid Intake and Dyslipidemia: A Continuous Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. J Am Heart Assoc. 2023;12(11):e029512. PMID:37264945
  16. Eslick GD, Howe PRC, Smith C, Priest R, Bensoussan A. Benefits of fish oil supplementation in hyperlipidemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Cardiol. 2009;136(1):4-16. doi:10.1016/ j.ijcard.2008.03.092. PMID:18774613
  17. Skulas-Ray AC, Kris-Etherton PM, Harris WS, et al. Dose-response effects of omega-3 fatty acids on triglycerides, inflammation, and endothelial function in healthy persons with moderate hypertriglyceride‐ mia. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93(2):243-252. doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.003871. PMID:21159789
  18. Skulas-Ray AC, Alaupovic P, Kris-Etherton PM, West SG. Dose-response effects of marine omega-3 fatty acids on apolipoproteins, apolipoprotein-defined lipoprotein subclasses, and Lp-PLA2 in individuals with moderate hypertriglyceridemia. J Clin Lipidol. 2015;9(3):360-367. PMID:26073395
  19. OMEGA-REMODEL — omega-3, ventricular remodeling and fibrosis after myocardial infarction.
  20. GISSI-HF — omega-3 in chronic heart failure.
  21. VITAL — marine omega-3 and primary prevention.
  22. Cochrane, 2020 — omega-3 for primary and secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease.
  23. GISSI-Prevenzione — suplementação com n-3 após enfarte e desfechos cardiovasculares. PMID 11999724.
  24. Meta-análise de 38 ensaios randomizados — ómega-3 e desfechos cardiovasculares. PMID 34505026.

Cérebro, cognição, crianças e estudantes

Aplicação prática: cérebro e cognição e estudantes.

DHA, atenção, memória, desempenho escolar, ADHD e cognição.

  1. McNamara RK, Carlson SE. Role of omega-3 fatty acids in brain development and function: potential implications for the pathogenesis and prevention of psychopathology. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2006;75(4-5):329-349. doi:10.1016/j.plefa.2006.07.010. PMID:16949263
  2. Bazinet RP, Layé S. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and their metabolites in brain function and disease. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2014;15(12):771-785. doi:10.1038/nrn3820. PMID:25387473
  3. EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies. Scientific Opinion on the substantiation of health claims related to DHA and maintenance of normal brain function. EFSA Journal. 2010;8(10):1734. doi:10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1734.
  4. Tan ZS, Harris WS, Beiser AS, et al. Red blood cell omega-3 fatty acid levels and markers of accelerated brain aging. Neurology. 2012;78(9):658-664. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e318249f6a9. PMID:22371413
  5. Satizabal CL, Himali JJ, Beiser AS, et al. Association of red blood cell omega-3 fatty acids with MRI markers and cognitive function in midlife: The Framingham Heart Study. Neurology. 2022;99(23):e2572- e2582. PMID:36198518
  6. Pottala JV, Yaffe K, Robinson JG, Espeland MA, Wallace R, Harris WS. Higher RBC EPA + DHA corresponds with larger total brain and hippocampal volumes: WHIMS-MRI study. Neurology. 2014;82(5):435-442. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000000080. PMID:24453077
  7. Schaefer EJ, Bongard V, Beiser AS, et al. Plasma phosphatidylcholine docosahexaenoic acid content and risk of dementia and Alzheimer disease: The Framingham Heart Study. Arch Neurol. 2006;63(11):1545-1550. PMID:17101822
  8. Wei BZ, Li L, Dong CW, Tan CC, Xu W. The relationship of omega-3 fatty acids with dementia and cognitive decline: evidence from prospective cohort studies of supplementation, dietary intake and blood markers. Am J Clin Nutr. 2023;117(6):1096-1109. doi:10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.04.001. PMID:37028557
  9. Witte AV, Kerti L, Hermannstädter HM, et al. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids improve brain function and structure in older adults. Cereb Cortex. 2014;24(11):3059-3068. doi:10.1093/cercor/bht163. PMID:23796946
  10. Liao Y, Xie B, Zhang H, et al. Efficacy of omega-3 PUFAs in depression: a meta-analysis. Transl Psychiatry. 2019;9:190. doi:10.1038/s41398-019-0515-5. PMID:31383846
  11. Wang Y, Lin QW, Zheng PP, Zhang JS, Huang FR. Effect of high ratio of n-6/n-3 PUFAs on depression: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Front Nutr. 2022;9:889576. doi:10.3389/fnut.2022.889576. PMID:35669073
  12. Guu TW, Mischoulon D, Sarris J, et al. International Society for Nutritional Psychiatry Research practice guidelines for omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Psychother Psychosom. 2019;88(5):263-273. doi:10.1159/000502652. PMID:31480057
  13. Chang JPC, Su KP, Mondelli V, Pariante CM. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in youths with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical trials and biological studies. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2018;43(3):534-545. doi:10.1038/npp.2017.160. PMID:28741625
  14. Bloch MH, Qawasmi A. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry. 2011;50(10):991-1000. PMID:21961774
  15. Widenhorn-Müller K, Schwanda S, Scholz E, Spitzer M, Bode H. Effect of supplementation with long- chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on behavior and cognition in children with ADHD: a randomized placebo-controlled intervention trial. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2014;91(1-2):49-60. PMID:24958525
  16. McNamara RK et al. DHA supplementation, cortical activation and attention in healthy boys.
  17. Sheppard KW, Cheatham CL. Omega-6/omega-3 ratio and executive function in children.
  18. Sheppard KW et al. Fatty acids and executive function in children — replication.
  19. van der Wurff ISM et al. Omega-3 Index, attention and information processing in adolescents.
  20. van der Wurff ISM et al. Food2Learn — randomized trial protocol in adolescents.
  21. Valenzuela R et al. Erythrocyte DHA and academic performance in school leavers.
  22. Åberg MAI et al. Fish consumption and school grades in Swedish adolescents.
  23. Stonehouse W et al. DHA supplementation and cognitive performance.
  24. Bauer I et al. Omega-3 supplementation and cognitive function.
  25. Chang JPC et al. High-dose EPA, baseline EPA status and attention in youths.
  26. Bos DJ et al. Omega-3 supplementation and symptoms of inattention.
  27. Milte CM et al. Erythrocyte EPA+DHA, attention and literacy.
  28. Cooper RE et al. Omega-3 and domain-specific cognition in youths: meta-analysis.
  29. Trebatická J et al. Omega-6/omega-3 ratio change and clinical outcomes in youths.
  30. NHANES analysis — dietary n-6:n-3 ratio and ADHD in children/adolescents.
  31. Red blood cell fatty acid patterns and cognitive functions in adolescents.
  32. Tan KML et al. Omega-3 status and academic performance.
  33. Jackson PA et al. EPA-rich oil and cognition.
  34. Richardson AJ et al. DOLAB — DHA and learning/behaviour.
  35. Richardson AJ et al. DOLAB II.
  36. Gow RV et al. Omega-3 blood levels and ADHD: meta-analysis.
  37. Omega-3 PUFAs for ADHD core symptoms: meta-analysis.
  38. Händel MN et al. PUFA supplementation in ADHD: systematic review and meta-analysis.
  39. Fish oil/DHA supplementation and cognitive function in children.
  40. Adolescent omega-fatty-acid randomized trial: memory and executive attention.
  41. Diet-induced EPA+DHA changes and school performance in Danish children.
  42. Krill oil supplementation and school grades in adolescents.
  43. Ácidos gordos n-3 plasmáticos e mortalidade em adultos mais velhos. PMID 23546563.
  44. Omega-3 Index e incidência de fragilidade em adultos de 70–84 anos. PMID 40740649.
  45. DO-HEALTH — ómega-3 e incidência de quedas em adultos com 70 anos ou mais. PMID 35136915.

Metabolismo, resistência à insulina e fígado

Aplicação prática: metabolismo e fígado.

Síndrome metabólica, diabetes, lípidos e doença hepática gordurosa.

  1. Albert BB, Derraik JGB, Brennan CM, et al. Higher omega-3 index is associated with increased insulin sensitivity and more favourable metabolic profile in middle-aged overweight men. Sci Rep. 2014;4:6697. doi:10.1038/srep06697. PMID:25331725
  2. Tsitouras PD, Gucciardo F, Salbe AD, Heward C, Harman SM. High omega-3 fat intake improves insulin sensitivity and reduces CRP and IL6, but does not affect other endocrine axes in healthy older adults. Horm Metab Res. 2008;40(3):199-205. doi:10.1055/s-2008-1046759. PMID:18348080
  3. Jang H, Park K. Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids and metabolic syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Nutr. 2020;39(3):765-773. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2019.03.032. PMID:31010701
  4. Wang Y, Wang Y, Shehzad Q, et al. Does omega-3 PUFAs supplementation improve metabolic syndrome and related cardiovascular diseases? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2024;64(26):9455-9482. doi:10.1080/10408398.2023.2212817. PMID:37222574
  5. Basirat A, Merino-Torres JF. Marine-Based Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Metabolic Syndrome: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2025;17(20):3279. doi:10.3390/ nu17203279. PMID:41156531
  6. Rinella ME, Lazarus JV, Ratziu V, et al. A multisociety Delphi consensus statement on new fatty liver disease nomenclature. J Hepatol. 2023;79(6):1542-1556. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2023.06.003. PMID:37364790
  7. Scorletti E, Byrne CD. Omega-3 fatty acids, hepatic lipid metabolism, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. Annu Rev Nutr. 2013;33:231-248. doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-071812-161230. PMID:23862644
  8. Lee CH, Fu Y, Yang SJ, Chi CC. Effects of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation on Non- Alcoholic Fatty Liver: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients. 2020;12(9):2769. doi:10.3390/ nu12092769. PMID:32932796
  9. Kim SJ, Cho SH, Yun JM. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in adults: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Nutr. 2025;50:164-174. doi:10.1016/ j.clnu.2025.05.013. PMID:40441053
  10. Scorletti E, Bhatia L, McCormick KG, et al. Effects of purified eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: results from the WELCOME study. Hepatology. 2014;60(4):1211-1221. doi:10.1002/hep.27289. PMID:25043514
  11. Scorletti E, West AL, Bhatia L, et al. Treating liver fat and serum triglyceride levels in NAFLD, effects of PNPLA3 and TM6SF2 genotypes: results from the WELCOME trial. J Hepatol. 2015;63(6):1476-1483. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2015.07.036. PMID:26272871
  12. Tobin D, Brevik-Andersen M, Qin Y, Innes JK, Calder PC. Evaluation of a High Concentrate Omega-3 for Correcting the Omega-3 Fatty Acid Nutritional Deficiency in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (CONDIN). Nutrients. 2018;10(8):1126. doi:10.3390/nu10081126. PMID:30127297

Atletas, músculo, recuperação e articulações

Aplicação prática: atletas, desporto profissional e articulações.

Síntese proteica, força, recuperação, DOMS, VO₂ e função muscular.

  1. Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, Mittendorfer B. Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2011;93(2):402-412. doi:10.3945/ajcn.110.005611. PMID:21159787
  2. Smith GI, Atherton P, Reeds DN, Mohammed BS, Rankin D, Rennie MJ, Mittendorfer B. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinaemia- hyperaminoacidaemia in healthy young and middle-aged men and women. Clin Sci (Lond). 2011;121(6):267-278. doi:10.1042/CS20100597. PMID:21501117
  3. Therdyothin A, Prokopidis K, Galli F, Witard OC, Isanejad M. The effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on muscle and whole-body protein synthesis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutr Rev. 2025;83(2):e131-e143. PMID:38777807
  4. Rodacki CLN, Rodacki ALF, Pereira G, Naliwaiko K, Coelho I, Pequito D, Fernandes LC. Fish-oil supplementation enhances the effects of strength training in elderly women. Am J Clin Nutr. 2012;95(2):428-436. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.021915. PMID:22218156
  5. Da Boit M, Sibson R, Sivasubramaniam S, et al. Sex differences in the effect of fish-oil supplementation on the adaptive response to resistance exercise training in older people: a randomized controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2017;105(1):151-158. doi:10.3945/ajcn.116.140780. PMID:27852617
  6. Brook MS, et al. Omega-3 supplementation during unilateral resistance exercise training in older women: a within-subject and double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Clin Nutr. 2022;41(4):888-898. PMID:34857226
  7. Uchida Y, Tsuji K, Ochi E. Effects of Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation and resistance training on skeletal muscle. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2024;61:189-196. doi:10.1016/j.clnesp.2024.03.019. PMID:38777432
  8. Kyriakidou Y, Wood C, Ferrier C, Dolci A, Elliott B. The effect of Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid supplementation on exercise-induced muscle damage. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2021;18(1):9. doi:10.1186/ s12970-020-00405-1. PMID:33441158
  9. Makaje N, Ruangthai R, Sae-Tan S. Effects of Omega-3 Supplementation on the Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness after Cycling High Intensity Interval Training in Overweight or Obese Males. Clin Nutr ESPEN. 2024. PMID:38841630
  10. Heileson JL, et al. Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation and Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: EPA or DHA? Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2024. PMID:38051142
  11. Yaghoobi E, Pashaei F, Allsopp GL, et al. Effects of LC n-3 PUFA Supplementation on Muscle Pain, Function, and Damage Markers in Healthy Young to Middle-Aged Adults Following Acute or Chronic Exercise: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2026;18(9):1447. doi:10.3390/nu18091447. PMID:42124047
  12. Żebrowska A, Mizia-Stec K, Mizia M, Gąsior Z, Poprzęcki S. Omega-3 fatty acids supplementation improves endothelial function and maximal oxygen uptake in endurance-trained athletes. Eur J Sport Sci. 2015;15(4):305-314. doi:10.1080/17461391.2014.949310. PMID:25176010
  13. Jäger R, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition Position Stand: Long-Chain Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2025;22(1):2441775. doi:10.1080/15502783.2024.2441775. PMID:39810703
  14. Smith GI, Julliand S, Reeds DN, Sinacore DR, Klein S, Mittendorfer B. Fish oil-derived n-3 PUFA therapy increases muscle mass and function in healthy older adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2015;102(1):115-122. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.105833. PMID:25994567
  15. Cornish SM, et al. Effects of Omega-3 Supplementation Alone and Combined with Resistance Exercise on Skeletal Muscle in Older Adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients. 2022. PMID:35684018
  16. Wang W, Xu Y, Zhou J, Zang Y. Effects of omega-3 supplementation on lipid metabolism, inflammation, and disease activity in rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin Rheumatol. 2024;43(8):2479-2488. doi:10.1007/s10067-024-07040-0. PMID:38922552
  17. Lee YH, Bae SC, Song GG. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis. Arch Med Res. 2012;43(5):356-362. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2012.06.011. PMID:22835600
  18. Deng W, et al. Effect of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids supplementation for patients with osteoarthritis: a meta-analysis. J Orthop Surg Res. 2023;18:381. doi:10.1186/s13018-023-03855-w. PMID:37226250
  19. Omega-3 Index in winter endurance athletes.
  20. Omega-3 Index in NCAA football athletes.
  21. Omega-3 Index across NCAA sports.
  22. Atletas australianos de elite e world-class — Omega-3 Index em 595 atletas. PMID 42467283.
  23. Omega-3 Index e recuperação da frequência cardíaca após exercício. PMID 25355484.
  24. DHA, Omega-3 Index e custo de oxigénio no ciclismo em indivíduos treinados. PMID 28338369.
  25. Corredores de longa distância — 12 semanas de ómega-3, Omega-3 Index, economia e VO₂peak. PMID 36161864.
  26. Futebol feminino de elite — DHA e tempo de reação complexa. PMID 24149875.
  27. Futebol competitivo — fish oil adicionado a bebida de recuperação. PMID 28871832.
  28. Rugby profissional — suplementação com ómega-3, soreness e manutenção de potência. PMID 29985775.
  29. EPA+DHA e recuperação após contrações excêntricas: força e amplitude articular. PMID 27085996.
  30. Futebol — suplementação com n-3 durante treino e capacidade anaeróbia/intermitente. PMID 28387540.
  31. Futebol — cabeceios repetidos e biomarcadores de lesão axonal. PMID 30233810.
  32. NCAA football — ómega-3, Omega-3 Index, AA:EPA e neurofilamento leve. PMID 34579748.
  33. NCAA football — resposta dose-dependente do Omega-3 Index ao DHA. PMID 36728325.
  34. Rugby feminino profissional — evolução do Omega-3 Index e do rácio AA:EPA. PMID 38648883.

Pele, gravidez e primeiros anos

Aplicação prática: pele, saúde da mulher e visão e retina.

Pele, fotoproteção, gestação, prematuridade e neurodesenvolvimento infantil.

  1. Handeland K, Wakeman M, Burri L. Krill oil supplementation improves transepidermal water loss, hydration and elasticity of the skin in healthy adults: results from two randomized, double-blind, placebo- controlled, dose-finding pilot studies. J Cosmet Dermatol. 2024;23(12):4285-4294. doi:10.1111/jocd.16513. PMID:39169540
  2. Pilkington SM, Rhodes LE, Al-Aasswad NMI, et al. Impact of EPA ingestion on COX- and LOX- mediated eicosanoid synthesis in skin with and without a pro-inflammatory UVR challenge: report of a randomised controlled study in humans. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2014;58(3):580-590. doi:10.1002/ mnfr.201300405. PMID:24311515
  3. Rhodes LE, O'Farrell S, Jackson MJ, Friedmann PS. Dietary fish-oil supplementation in humans reduces UVB-erythemal sensitivity but increases epidermal lipid peroxidation. J Invest Dermatol. 1994;103(2):151-154. doi:10.1111/1523-1747.ep12392604. PMID:8040603
  4. Pilkington SM, Massey KA, Bennett SP, et al. Randomized controlled trial of oral omega-3 PUFA in solar- simulated radiation-induced suppression of human cutaneous immune responses. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;97(3):646-652. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.049494. PMID:23364005
  5. Rhodes LE, Durham BH, Fraser WD, Friedmann PS. Dietary fish oil reduces basal and ultraviolet B- generated PGE2 levels in skin and increases the threshold to provocation of polymorphic light eruption. J Invest Dermatol. 1995;105(4):532-535. PMID:7561154
  6. Rhodes LE, Shahbakhti H, Azurdia RM, et al. Effect of eicosapentaenoic acid, an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid, on UVR-related cancer risk in humans: an assessment of early genotoxic markers. Carcinogenesis. 2003;24(5):919-925. PMID:12771037
  7. Cetin I, Carlson SE, Burden C, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid supply in pregnancy for risk reduction of preterm and early preterm birth. Am J Obstet Gynecol MFM. 2024;6(2):101251. doi:10.1016/j.ajogmf.2023.101251. PMID:38070679
  8. Bergmann RL, Haschke-Becher E, Klassen-Wigger P, et al. Supplementation with 200 mg/day DHA from mid-pregnancy through lactation improves the DHA status of mothers with a habitually low fish intake and of their infants. Ann Nutr Metab. 2008;52(2):157-166. doi:10.1159/000129651. PMID:18446020
  9. Best KP, Gibson RA, Makrides M. ISSFAL statement number 7: Omega-3 fatty acids during pregnancy to reduce preterm birth. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids. 2022;186:102495. doi:10.1016/ j.plefa.2022.102495. PMID:36228573
  10. Makrides M, Best K, Yelland L, et al. A randomized trial of prenatal n-3 fatty acid supplementation and preterm delivery. N Engl J Med. 2019;381(11):1035-1045. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1816832. PMID:31509674
  11. Middleton P, Gomersall JC, Gould JF, Shepherd E, Olsen SF, Makrides M. Omega-3 fatty acid addition during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018;11:CD003402. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003402.pub3. PMID:30480773
  12. Best KP, Northcott C, Simmonds LA, et al. The early implementation phase of the Omega-3 Test-and- Treat Program for reducing the risk of preterm birth, South Australia, 2021-22: an implementation evaluation study. Med J Aust. 2025. doi:10.5694/mja2.70101.
  13. Jensen CL, Voigt RG, Prager TC, et al. Effects of maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on visual function and neurodevelopment in breastfed term infants. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;82(1):125-132. doi:10.1093/ ajcn.82.1.125. PMID:16002810
  14. Jensen CL, Voigt RG, Llorente AM, et al. Effects of early maternal docosahexaenoic acid intake on neuropsychological status and visual acuity at five years of age of breast-fed term infants. J Pediatr. 2010;157(6):900-905. PMID:20655543
  15. Nevins JEH, Donovan SM, Snetselaar L, et al. Omega-3 fatty acid dietary supplements consumed during pregnancy and lactation and child neurodevelopment: a systematic review. J Nutr. 2021;151(11):3483-3494. doi:10.1093/jn/nxab238. PMID:34383914
  16. ORIP — identificação de mulheres que podem beneficiar de dose mais alta de ómega-3 na gravidez. PMID 37068907.
  17. Ómega-3 e síndrome dos ovários policísticos — revisão recente. PMID 39275277.
  18. Ómega-3 em mulheres com síndrome dos ovários policísticos — dados clínicos. PMID 29580250.
  19. Suplementação com ómega-3 e intensidade da dismenorreia. PMID 22261128.
  20. Ómega-3 em dismenorreia de adolescentes. PMID 8623866.Estudo científico relacionado
  21. Ensaio clínico — ómega-3 e parâmetros de olho seco/disfunção das glândulas de Meibomius. PMID 27442314.
  22. AREDS report 23 — ingestão de EPA+DHA e incidência de degeneração macular relacionada com a idade. PMID 18779490.